Video Games as Art

Video Games as Art Dylan Armitage December 10th, 2012 100883983 Video Games Are Art Are video games art? Up until the early 21st century, the dominant ideology surrounding this topic is resounding â€Å"No†. Art critics, such as Roger Ebert that state â€Å"video games cannot be art. † (Roger Ebert's Journal), and philosophers continually dismiss the idea. This ideology is no longer an accepted truth. I will argue that video games are a form of art.Video Games have gone from simple games and concepts such as Pong (1975) to modern day, epic titles like Uncharted 3 (2011), and with that they have evolved from simple forms of entertainment to as sophisticated a form of art as any. Video games evoke great emotion from the players, much like the audience of any other form of art. Video games also should be considered a form of art because of the vast amount of tools and media that are combined to create the games that we play today.The list of games that can be considered ar t increases each year and it spans over many generations, consoles, and genres. Art is defined as â€Å"The expression or application of human creative skill and imagination,†. According to this definition, if things such as paintings, film and music are considered to be art, then video games clearly fall into the category as well. Video games today are as creative as anything. Video games allow for so much creative freedom to create any setting, any character and have the ability to interact with all of those and create a new world.Games take creativity and allow you to immerse yourself within it. In games like the series of Mass Effect (2007-2012), you are able to put a certain amount of creative input into the game yourself. You dictate many facets of the game. You can customize your character, whether it be gender, race or just the general way your character looks. Secondly, your decisions affect the world of the game. You can dictate what your character says and through that change the course of events and how other characters in the game think of you. It is essentially a new world.The game includes it's own lore, deals with issues that we deal with today but in a new world and in a more lighthearted fashion that definitely makes the player think. These issues include those of race barriers and the fear of technology taking over. When it comes to actual labour going into a game, it is very similar to that of a film. They include things such as motion capture. Which is essentially capturing the real life movements of someone and that translates to a sort of acting. The second element of that acting is contributed to the voice-over acting for characters.This gives freedom of imagination to match any human with any voice you wish. The list then goes on for ages to include animators, set designers, sound designers and much more. The credits to people at the end of the games are much like that of movies and it all contributes to a fantastically entertai ning piece of art. Many people view games as simply a form of entertainment. While they are indeed entertaining, they should be considered forms of art for many different reasons. Art evokes emotion, whether it be from a beautiful orchestral medley or a gorgeous landscape painting. Video games do the same.In the modern day gaming industry, games are more than just getting from beginning to end and win the game, they involve the player in many ways. In The Walking Dead: The Game (2012), you are put in control of Lee Everett, a former university professor who is on his way to prison. The game is very unorthodox in many ways, it is much less about having action-packed gameplay or incredibly realistic graphics. It is focused on engrossing the player in the story and with the characters. It involves some point and click battles, which is necessary for the setting it takes place in, but it is heavily focused on choice.Everything you do in the game has an effect. Whether it be from not giv ing someone a portion of rations or choosing to side with someone in an argument. The game world adapts to the choices you make and it all relies on the player. With such involvement the player finds themselves greatly committed emotionally to all facets of the game. The involvement tests a lot of boundaries with human emotion. â€Å"It explores the depths of human tolerance, dissecting what it means to survive in the worst possible scenario, and what it means to keep someone you love alive in the same situation. (Joystiq) Through this, it evokes incredible emotion from the player. Video games can even mix elements of many other artistic media. Taking that into account, video games can do everything that all other artistic media can, but it can be packaged into one outlet. You get the wonderful story and script of a wonderfully written book but with you as the main character, effecting the world how you see fit. The stories of video games have become increasingly more complex and c ompelling. They even draw interest of film and novel writers and elements from other artistic works.The Walking Dead: The Game from Telltale Games is a great example of this. The video game draws from The Walking Dead television series on AMC and the television series draws from a graphic novel with the same name. This franchise is a great example of how different artistic media can draw from each other. All instances of the series are written by Robert Kirkman, the creator of the graphic novel series. The mainstream success of all these series are a testament to how the art that is The Walking Dead can be conveyed with great success whether it be the novels, the show or the game.Another great example of a writer of film getting interested in video games is John Milius, writer of Apocalypse Now (1979) and Red Dawn (1984) being a story consultant to the video game closely related to his screenplays, Homefront (2011). You get the epic landscapes and imagery of film but with the freedo m to explore and interact with it. In the game Far Cry 3 (2012) you play as Jason Brody and you are on an island called Rook Island which is inspired by a real tropical island. You are abducted along with your friends and you escape, determined to rescue all of them.The game is open-world, which gives the freedom to do almost anything within the limit of the game world. You don't even have to follow the games' story, which has received critical acclaim. You can explore the absolutely stunning scenery of the island, you can go hunt the local wildlife, you can go climbing or even sky-diving. The setting is very appealing and draws you in like any film would but also allows you to interact and do whatever you wish with the world given to you. There are also games that allow you to interact with the world without even starting to play the real game.Call of Duty: Black Ops (2010) has an interactive section at the main menu of the game. If you were to mash certain buttons enough, you were able to walk around the room that the main menu is taking place in. You can even walk over to an arcade machine and play a game inside of the game. The same can be seen in the newest instalment, Call of Duty: Black Ops 2 (2012) a similar section can be seen where you can interact with the world to play multiple games from the original Atari gaming console. You also the get the beautiful noise of the in-game sound effects and soundtrack.The audio of video games has evolved from simple, silly sounding noises and no dialogue to complete orchestral scores throughout the game and Hollywood famous actors voicing in-game characters. Actors that have made the transition to video games include Sam Worthington of in Call of Duty: Black Ops 1 and 2, Seth Green in the Mass Effect series and Burt Reynolds in Saints Row: The Third (2011). The sound of a video game has come from the game Pong that only has three noises, the sound of the ball hitting the paddle, the sound of the ball hitting the s idelines and then the sound of a point being scored.This can not be attributed to be art as far as audio goes. In contrast, the soundtrack for Journey (2012) has been nominated for a Grammy. Gaming soundtracks have evolved to the point of having individual tracks for certain situations or scenes that involve an entire orchestra, much like a film. The soundtrack for Journey is among the company of other artistic wonders in film as well as sound such as The Dark Knight Rises (2012), Hugo (2011), and The Girl With The Dragon Tattoo (2011).All of these media combine to form the art that is video games. Now that the ground for all the aspects of a video game being art have been established, which games fall into that category and reinforce that ideal? Many games fall under all the criteria but some stand out when it comes to the different aspects. The creativity of video games is very evident throughout almost all video games but it is much more evident in the games of Mass Effect and De ad Space 2 (2011).Mass Effect creates this vast world that includes multiple races, new planets and interesting lore that embody great creativity in video games. Creativity is also given to the players who are able to customize the character and how the character acts which dictates events and action within the story world. Dead Space 2 creates a vast world as well with great lore and the thought of where humanity would go as far as a space society. The game also talks about the issue of religion governing the state. This comes up in many ways including the game's main conflict.The game also draw on the very interesting and creative aspect of not knowing if certain things are really happening, much like the game Eternal Darkness: Sanity's Requiem (2002). The sanity of the character is never really certain and you are constantly doubting yourself as well as what is occurring. When it comes to emotional engagement, two games stand out. The Walking Dead: The Game and Heavy Rain (2010). The Walking Dead: The Game engages the player in an extravagant world with interactive environments and characters.It engages you with the characters and deals with realistic issues regarding the time and place while developing an emotional connection to the story and characters. By the time the game is complete, you are torn through all the choices you've made and with the emotionally testing relationship between Lee, the character you play as, and Clementine, the little girl you take care of throughout the game. The other game that engages the player emotionally in a great way is Heavy Rain. The game puts the the player in the shoes of Ethan and tests what the player is willing to go to to save his son.You have the ability to push the character through the trials that reveal where his son is being held but with more information being revealed the closer to death Ethan becomes. As far as including all the artistic media, many games stand out. When it comes to the great writing of novels and screenplays, games such as The Walking Dead: The Game and Homefront use the talents of credited author and screenwriters to convey a great story through rich dialogue. The interactivity of games and beautiful set pieces is shown through games such as Far Cry 3 and Red Dead Redemption (2010).In these worlds, great freedom is introduced which allows you to do really anything you desire through the many different characters, wildlife and locations the game introduces. Great strides in audio are introduced through games such as Mass Effect that include voice-actors such as Seth Green of Family Guy and Yvonne Strahovski of Dexter and the beautiful sounding and Grammy nominated soundtrack of Journey. In conclusion, the dominant ideology that video games are not art is a thing of the past.Through the emotional engagement of games today, video games evoke as much emotion as any other work of art. Through it's creativity and ability to create any universe as you see fit, much like other media. Video games also combine many different forms of media to create a brand new artistic form that is video games. They use great set pieces, beautiful audio through orchestra or voice over. Video games have evolved greatly from small beginnings and the list of examples is increasing very quickly. Through all these reasons and examples, video games are art.Clarke, Andy, Videogames and Art. Chicago: Intellect Books, 2007. Conditt, Jessica â€Å"The Walking Dead Episode 5 review: All the time in the world† Joystiq. 26 Nov 2012, 8 Dec 2012 Ebert, Roger â€Å"Video Games cannot be Art. † Roger Ebert's Journal. 16 Apr 2010, 8 Dec 2012 ;http://blogs. suntimes. com/ebert/2010/04/video_games_can_never_be_art. html; Helgeson, Matt â€Å"The Great Debate: Are Games Art? † Game Informer. 1 May. 2012, 8 Dec 2012 ;http://www. gameinformer. om/b/features/archive/2012/05/01/the-great-debate-are-games-art. aspx; Melissinos, Chris, The Art of Video Games: From Pac-ma n to Mass Effect. New York: Welcome Books, 2012. Tavinor, Grant 2005. â€Å"Videogames and Interactive Fiction,†Ã‚  Philosophy and Literature  April 2005, vol. 29, no. 1. Tavinor, Grant 2009. The Art of Videogames. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. Young, Robert â€Å"Gaming's first Grammy nomination† Neoseeker. 5 Dec 2012, 8 Dec 2012

Persuasive Speech Green Burials Essay

With the effects global warming and other natural disasters becoming more frequent, it is safe to say pollution has created a major crisis on our planet. Theses effect can be seen in the United State with the major cold front that has just pushed in from Canada over this past week. Scientist say weather patterns such as this will become more likely because of global warming. As an ecofriendly individual, I have taken the time to research many ecological ideas. Today I hope to persuade individuals to select green burials as an alternative burial option. A green burial or natural burial is the proper disposal of the deceased with as little carbon impact as possible to the natural environment. Green burials help conserve natural resources, produces little to no carbon emissions, aids in protecting the health of grave diggers, and restores and preserves the natural habitat. For the end-of-life ritual to be considered to be a â€Å"green burial,† there can be no usage of non-biodeg radable or toxic materials. People who select to engage in green burials are laid to rest in materials such as: shrouds or biodegradable caskets and urns. Why would a person select to be buried in such a manner, you ask? A green burial offers many positive affect upon the environment when compared to traditional burial methods. I would like to begin by saying that I do not consider any end-of-life method to be considered â€Å"wrong.† I only wish to advocate an alternative option to decrease to carbon footprint of our last act in the world. The act of embalming a loved on often includes the usage a chemical called formaldehyde. Formaldehyde poses a major threat to funeral directors and their funeral homes. In accordance to the National Cancer Institution, â€Å"funeral directors have a much higher incidence of myeloid leukemia.† Although embalming fluid does preserve the physical characteristic of a loved one, but after months in the grave the embalming fluid drastically decrease the decomposition rate of the body. Again I don’t wish to discredit any other form of burial. Green burials offer many positive aspects t hat aid the earth. Why should someone choose to have a green burial? Earth has  always intend to humans to return to the soil from which they came. In nature, nothing is wasted. Everything is recycled by billion upon trillions of tiny microorganisms that break down all waste matter. Natural burials also aid in the growth of native trees, wildflowers, and shrubs. These wild plants will bring about a whole new eco-system to the burial area that both plants and animals will benefit from. There is no water wasted on these grounds or harmful pesticides and herbicides because the area is left to grow naturally. Imagine the joy of being able to remember a loved one as a new tree that provides life to millions of organisms. Green burials are an ecofriendly way to leave a positive lasting impact upon the earth. In 2007 AARP conducted a study that showed, â€Å"1 in 5 American over the age of 50 have considered having a green burial ceremony.† Green burials is just one of many end-of-life rituals practi ced all around the world. Work Cited Markoe, Lauren. â€Å"Green Burials Reflect Care for Earth, Family Finances.† Christian Century 131.4 (2014): 18-19. Academic Search Premier. Wed. 11 November 2014. Unknown. â€Å"Green Burials,†¦Return Naturally.† Green Burials,†¦Return Naturally. N.p., 17 Sept. 2008. Web. 11 Nov. 2014. Unknown. â€Å"Green Burial Council.† Green Burial Council. N.p., 18 May 2012. Web. 11 Nov. 2014.

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Ethical Dilema Case 3 - Essay Example It’s a dilemma in our society that individuals who are suspected to be criminals by law are treated as criminals by individuals in our society – and this maltreatment continues essentially if the court releases and does not find that individual as guilty. Once suspected to be a criminal, an individual’s life is over. Subsequently, each and every law enforcing agencies need to be very careful while declaring an individual as a suspect. Stereotyping is another major issue associated with judgment of individuals. Al-Qaeda has gained a lot of fame as a renowned terrorist group, and Muslims across the world are suffering because as part of their religious practice, when they grow bears or females cover their head, they are deemed as extremists and thus, titled as terrorists. Such level of stereotyping often creates problems for law enforcing agencies as well and sometimes wrongful arrests are made. And as mentioned earlier, once a suspect, their life becomes worst the n criminals. I strongly disagree to the fact that torture should be limited to a degree and should only be applied in an extreme scenario. For example, if a suspect is caught, he or she should be treated fairly and justly – once proven guilty, still the law enforcing agencies should treat the criminal like a human being. ... And even when proven guilty, everyone has the right to be treated in an appropriate manner – unless it becomes a matter of national security or threat. Moral Rules Access to justice is the right of every human being and is one of the common clauses of most of the constitutions that exist in the world today in the sovereign states. Justice implies treating everyone fairly – Muslims, Jews, Christians, Hindus, etc.; all men should be equal before the law and punishable by law only if proven guilty via appropriate evidence. Thus, seeking justice is what everyone can and should aim at for everyone. Being law enforcement officer, the responsibility is to ensure that everyone gets justice. By torturing, an officer would be using the powers in a false manner because only the law has the power to punish – not the officer. As a law enforcement officer, it is one of the duties to protect the suspects unless they are proven guilty in the court of law. Even to the extent that if the suspect is lying, the officers should have different mechanisms to pull the truth and torture should be the last possible medium for it. An officer should let law and courts perform their duties, by taking actions such as torture and punishments into their own hands, officers are taking up a responsibility of making a decision regarding innocence or guilt of an individual; which is not possible without concrete evidence. Thus, at the end of the day, an innocent might suffer because of a misunderstanding or biasness of the law enforcement officer; because officers are trained to develop suspicion and torturing based on suspicion to get information is equivalent to punishing suspects – and in

Texts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

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Performance Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Performance Management - Essay Example Firstly I will be basing my argument on the fact that apart from financial measures ‘Non-financial indicators is likely to be used for identifying best practices within cooperative relationships’ (Patelli and Dossi, 2012). Next the team’s activities will be further related with job satisfaction and motivation as a consequence of 360 degree feedback, supervisor skills and work itself. (Shah et al, 2012) A positive relationship can be found between Job Satisfaction and motivation and Reward and Recognition, Supervision and Work itself. The fact that a healthy supervision was maintained through relative feedback and unbiased opinion through rotation of team leaders will be discussed later in the subsequent paragraphs.(Shah et al, 2012). In our 6 weeks of reading and team activities we have been taken through various stages. Every week was characterised by a unique and essential quality of team work, individual performance, relative moderation all of which sum up to g ive a first-hand experience of the following experiences: relationship between professional work and supervision( through weekly activities), supervisory skills (Through weekly rotation of the role of a leader) and balance between nature of work, reward and recognition and intrinsic motivation towards one’s job ... Performance Management in context of group activities Performance Management is not a one-dimensional activity as seen from the weekly group activities, involving not only supervision, but also assessment, emotional understanding, intellectual brainstorming seen in week 2 and 3 activities of questionnaire on a summary and the debate. In the same way Performance Management relies not just on absolute parameters and outcomes but relative analysis. As shared by one of the subsidiaries, ‘In our company, we pay much attention to information-sharing, and relative performance evaluation is one way to learn from each other’ ( Dossi and Patelli, 2012). Reflective analysis of weekly activities The diverse tasks in the first activity like: reading out a summary, comprehending the same and testing the assimilation and understanding through a rapid fire round of question, followed by subsequent critique by the leader and an open discussion gives an all-round practical exposure to Per formance and Talent Management. My group is composed of 6 participants, all of them being female. Participant A is an Australian local, participant B is another Australian local who already has a job and some work experience. Participant C is an international citizen thirty five year of age and having two children. Participants C, D and E are Chinese full time student. I am participant E. As can be observed form the above assimilation of participants. They have a balanced mix of students and professionals, young and middle aged participants, locals and foreign nationals, college graduates, undergraduates and working professionals. Various stages of Forming Storming, Norming, Confirming and

Vulnerable population-Mentally Ill Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Vulnerable population-Mentally Ill - Essay Example According to Stanton (2001), Alzheimer’s disease is a manifestation of dementia which occurs between ages 30-40 but common for 65 years old and older individuals. This disorder gets worse as time passes and it is a â€Å"degenerative disease that attacks the brain and results in increasingly impaired memory, thinking, reasoning, and behavior† (Stanton, 2001, n.pag.). The Department of Psychiatry New York University School of Medicine (n.d.) stated that United States has 4 million cases of AD on the aged. This paper will tackle on designing a program for elders having Alzheimers Disease and justifying whether home care or nursing home care is the most effective way on promoting wellness of these individuals. This is significant to gain focus as to which of the two health care setting would provide the most effective way of caring for the elderly and especially those with AD. This program starts from little pieces of ideas, goals and plans in combating Alzheimer’s Disease. This centers a simple community with an average number of population. The city of Colton under San Bernardino County is a community of close family relations, and known to be one of the developed dominions in the United States (â€Å"Demographics,† n.d.). Colton has 52,154 population as of 2010 (â€Å"Colton, California,† 2011). Colton’s history of having rich family ties sets them as perfect focus in extending programs of wellness of the aged, prevention and specific care for those having Alzheimer’s Disease within the family. Aside from support systems, it is important that an institution and program fit the standard needs of their client. The community as a whole needs to contribute to this as well by providing support and means of development. A 2010 study revealed that there are 2,153 under the 65 to 74 age bracket, 1, 277 for ages 75- 84 and 503 for ages 85 and above (â€Å"Colton CA,† n.d.). Estimated â€Å"median household income by age†

The importance of innovation along with evaluating the same in the Essay

The importance of innovation along with evaluating the same in the growth and development of Fairfax Media Limited - Essay Example The paper tells that innovation is often considered as the way towards the success. However, it is important to identify the impact and influence of innovation in every sense. Innovation can be used in the operational framework by adding technological values and at the same time can be used in business processes and stakeholder management to take it to the next level in the competitive business environment. However, it becomes important to identify the need and importance of innovation that will be followed by great number of changes within and outside the organisation. Change is inevitable and cannot be controlled and sustained for a long period of time. At the same time, changes should be implemented and defined in a clear and systematic manner to avoid resistance and complications. It becomes important to understand and analyse the impact and influence of internal and external factors that play an important role in change management process in the short as well as in the long run. The media industry has been changing at a rapid pace with the rise of technology changing the dynamics of the industry. Fairfax Media Limited has been operating in the media industry for more than 150 years. It operates in publishing news, information and entertainment. It’s Australian and New Zealand newspapers include; The Sydney Morning Herald, The Age, The Australian Financial Review, The Dominion Post and The Press. It also published regional and community newspapers along with few magazines. The company is also engaged in online business where readers can read newspapers. Overall, it can be said that the organsiation has a diversified portfolio with a balanced mixture of traditional and innovative business strategies helping it to make a mark in the competitive business environment. 1.1: General Imperatives in the Industry Sector As per the research conducted by the Sydney Investment Group (2011), there are strong signs that print media is dying with the rise and accep tance of technology and online platforms cannibalizing revenues. Australian newspaper circulation has declined rapidly in last few quarters. This trend is more visible in foreign

Overview to the Markets Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

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Repairing Refurbished Computers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

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1994 Rwandan Genocide Essay Example for Free

1994 Rwandan Genocide Essay The 1994 Rwandan Genocide impacted on a lot of people in a lot of different ways. In this essay the causes I will be covering are ethnic tension as a result of Belgium Colonisation, Propaganda and hate rhetoric, the role of the international community, and political problems. The consequences I will be covering are causalities, the economic effects, remembrance and education, and population displacement. In this small country in Africa called Rwanda this terrible killing took place. The Rwandan Genocide began on April 6th 1994 when the president was assassinated, followed by the prime minster the next day. It lasted 100 days, â€Å"100 days of slaughter† ending on the 18th of July 1994. The genocide included many groups. The perpetrators were – Hutu civilians, Hutu army, Interhamwe-the youth of Hutu organised into an extremist militia, and radio RTLM-a radio station announcing to kill all Tutsis. Victims included – Tutsi, Hutu political moderates for example prime minster AgatheUwilingiyimana. Other groups include – RPF (Rwandan Patriotic Front). President Juvenal Habyarimana who was in charge if the Hutu government, and the international community for example the UN (United Nations) Peacekeepers. During these 100 days of slaughter hundreds of thousands of Tutsi we killed. Women and girls we raped, and many tortured by having their breast chopped off and sharp objects inserted into their vaginas. Many people tried to hind in schools and churches but were found and executed. I have just written about the context and the course of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide. I am now going to write the causes of this horrific event starting with ethnic tension as a result of Belgium Colonisation. Ethnic tension as a result of Belgium Colonisation is arguably the biggest cause in the 1994 Rwandan Genocide. It is a political and social cause that happened over a long period of time. Starting in 1860 and coming right down to 1926. In 1860 the first Tutsi king was appointed. In 1884 German explorer Carl Peters enters the Rwandan kingdom and obtains treaty rights. In 1885 Germany declares a protectorate over present-day Rwanda. In 1890 Rwanda accepts German colonial rule with resistance. A German territorial administrator is not appointed until 1907. In 1916 WW1 Belgium Allied Forces capture German East Africa. In 1924 Great Britten assumes control over Tanzania, while Belgium is granted trusteeship over Rwanda and Burundi. Belgium Colonisation begins. In 1926 Rwandans were given an identity card showing if a person was Hutu, Tutsi or Twa. Prior to colonisation people could ‘jump’ races e. g. Hutu’s could become Tutsi’s. Callipers were the tools of colonisation. The size of the cranium and nose and the colour of the eyes were the factors that determined whether a person was a Hutu, Tutsi or Twa. The result of the unfair system was – Tutsi could have government positions, be landlords, be supervisors of Hutu, collect taxes, get an education (only Tutsi could go to school after the colonisation), be an administrator for the justice system. Hutu were denied higher education, land ownership and positions in government. The identity cards that everyone was given were very clear they had what ethnic group they were from, their place of birth, their date of birth, their profession, their place of residence, the name of their spouse, their C. I number, and their signature. A quote form chief prosecutor of the international Rwandan court sums up this cause well â€Å"European colonial history was a major contributor to what eventually became the genocide in Rwanda†. The second cause I am going to discuss is Propaganda and hate rhetoric. This is a social Cause; it is short term because it happened quite fast after the death of the president and prime minster. Kangura Newspaper was a newspaper about how discussing the Tutsis were, this was launched by first lady AgatheHabyarimana in 1990. Kangura means wake them up in English. In the newspaper they had racist comments such as â€Å"They look like animals, actually they are animals†, â€Å"If you allow snakes to live amongst you, you will be exterminated†, â€Å"They look hideous with their bushy hair and beards that are full of fleas†. RTLM (Radio Television des Milles Collines) or commonly known as â€Å"Hate Radio†, used good rock music to get people to listen to it then they used in to convey hateful messages such as â€Å"cut down the tall trees† this meant for all Hutu extremists to wipe out the Tutsis. RTLM often referred to Tutsi as cockroaches. In 1990 Kangura newspaper published the 10 commandments for the Hutus they were an extended version of 1, Every Hutu must know that the Tutsi woman is working for the Tutsi ethnic cause Hutu is a traitor who a) Acquires a Tutsi wife, b)Acquires a Tutsi concubine, c) Acquires a Tutsi sectary or protegee. 2, Every Hutu must know that our Hutu daughters are more worthy and more conscientious as a woman, as wives and as mothers. 3, Hutu women, be vigilant and make sure that your husbands, brothers and sons see reason. , All Hutus must know that all Tutsis are dishonest in business. We have learned this from experience from experience. Hutu is a traitor who a) forms a business alliance with a Tutsi, b) invests in own funds/public funds in a Tutsi enterprise, c) Borrows money from/loans money to a Tutsi, d) Grants favours to Tutsis. 5, Strategic positions such as politics, administration, economics the military and security must be restricted to Hutu. 6, A Hutu majority must prevail throughout the education system. 7. The Rwandan Army must be exclusively Hutu. No Solider may marry Tutsi women. 8, Hutu must stop taking pity on the Tutsi. 9, Hutu wherever they are must stand united, in solidarity, and concerned with the fate of their Hutu brothers. Hutu must constantly counter Tutsi propaganda. Hutu must stand firm and vigilant against their common enemy. The Tutsi. 10, The social Revolution of 1959, the Referendum of 1961 and the Hutu Ideology must be taught to Hutu of every age. Hutu must spread the word. Any Hutu who persecutes his brother Hutu for spreading the word and teaching this ideology is a traitor. A quote from Leon Mugesera sums up this cause â€Å"The fatal mistake we made in 1959 was to let them escape †¦ they are foreigners from Ethiopia so we will send them by the shortest route throwing them into the Nagbarongo river. We must act. Wipe them all out†. The third cause I am going to discuss is the role of the international community; it is a political cause that is a short term because it became an issue soon after the colonisation. During this cause the world just stood by and watched. Following WW11 and the Holocaust, The United Nations adopted a resolution on December 9, 1948, which stated â€Å"genocide, whether committed in time of peace or time of war, is a crime under international law which they undertake to prevent and to punish†. There were two opportunities to intervene that were missed. In October 1993 The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda began with the deployment of 21 troops under the command of Brigadier – General Romeo Allaire of Canada. Additional troops continued o arrive until February 1994, when the mission was fully staffed with 25,000 personnel. Many soldiers arrived without weapons, food or water; vehicles and radios were sent out second hand from other missions and rarely in working condition. On 11th January 1994 Officers were stockpiling weapons and training civilian militias; the level of preparedness would enable the murder of 1000 Tutsis every 20 minutes. This saying will finish off this cause nicely, â€Å"clearly, the massacres in Rwanda constituted genocide, so why didn’t the world steep into stop it? In my fourth and final cause I’m going to discuss political problems (the role of the Hutu extremists in the Habyarimana government and the catalyst). This is a political cause which was short term. President Juvenal Habyarimana came to power through a military coup in 1973. He promised national unity. By 1994 many Rwandans were calling for democratic government. In January 1994 in spite of increased state oppression and the French-supported up-build of armed forces, 50,000 Rwandans marched in a pro-democracy demonstration in Kigali. The build-up to the Hutu’s wanting power is over quite a short period of time†¦ only 3 years! In October 1990 civil war started when the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a militia of Rwandan Tutsi excels and Hutu dissidents based in Uganda, invaded Rwanda. Thousands of Tutsis were arrested. In 1991 RPF military victories pressured President Habyarimana into drafting a new multi-party constitution. In 1992 UN led peace talks led between the RPF, The Rwanda government and 12 opposition parties to try and achieve a power-sharing agreement. In August 1993 Arusha Peace Accords were signed to neutral Tanzania. Hutu Power’ started broadcasting Tutsi hate messages in the media. In 1993 A Hutu Power Party no participating in the government established Radio/TV Libre de Millie Collines (RTLM) to get round the Arusha agreements explicit prohibition on government sponsored hate speech. I has been believed that the ‘final nail in coffin’ was the assignation of P resi dent Habyarimana. At 8. 30p. m on April 6, 1994, President Juvenal Habyarimana of Rwanda was returning from a summit in Tanzania where, under international pressure, he was negotiating with the opposition to reach a settlement. A surface-to-air missile shot the plane out of the sky. All on board were killed. I have just written about the causes of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide, I am now going to write about the consequences of the ‘100 days of slaughter’. Starting with causalities. The 1994 Rwandan Genocide left behind some major consequences but beyond all others the biggest is the casualties. This is a political, social and ideological cause and is most defiantly immediate timing because it happened during genocide obviously; so many people were left both physically and mentally scared. Over the course of 100 days from April 6 – July 16 1994 it is estimated 800,000 – 1 million Tutsi and some moderate Hutu were slaughtered. The UN estimated 800,000 but the Rwandan government has estimated 1,071,000. It’s very difficult to get exact numbers because these numbers do not include people who were thrown into river/lakes and those who were burnt. Mass graves held up to 50,000 making it even harder to count exact numbers. If the numbers of Tutsis living in Rwanda before and after the genocide are correct then 77% of the Tutsi population was wiped out. 8,640 per day; 360 per hour, 6 per minute. If this is correct this is the equation 6 people x 60 minutes x 24 hours x 100 days = 864,000 people! There is between 300,000 to 400,000 survivors. Almost 50,000 women were left without husbands. Almost 100,000 of the survivors were aged between 14 and 21. 75,000 of the survivors were orphaned. A 1999 study showed 80% of women surveyed showed signs of trauma. Many face health problems such as HIV/AIDS as a direct act of violence during the genocide. Some of the survivors are still threatened with violence, attacked or killed by former perpetrators. Almost all women and girls that survived were raped, many also tortured and mutilated by having their breasts cut off and sharp objects being inserted into their vaginas. Numbers of women and girls raped are somewhere between 250,000 and 500,000 exact numbers are not known. Children of rape during the genocide numbers are 2,000 to 5,000 children. Most children show trauma and signs of neglect. More than 67% of women raped were infected with HIV/AIDS. Men with HIV/AIDS used it as a weapon to leave their mark on Tutsi women and their families. To sum up the consequence what the presiding judge said after the verdict â€Å"From time immemorial, rape has been regarded as spoils of war. Now it will be considered a war crime. We want to send out a strong message that rape is no longer a trophy of war†. In the second consequence, I am going to discuss the economic effects. This is an economic consequence and it is immediate because the things that happened during left people with big struggles. The Rwandan government has struggled to rebuild the economy. In the year of the genocide, growth slumped by 50% and inflation reached 64%. Almost two thirds of the 8. million population live below the poverty line. Coffee is Rwandans major export. Rwanda exported 14,000 tonnes in 1986. The positives of the economic problems were the exiled business leaders returning home, since the genocide in 1994 business leaders have been returning home from Burundi, Congo, Uganda and Tanzania. Desire Kamanzi’s father sold his three houses in Burundi to return to Rwanda. This was no unusual. To sum up this consequence a quote from Leon Haguma, acting director of coffee marketing â€Å"All was abandoned, they were dead or had fled the country, there was nobody to work the plantations†. In the third consequence, I am going to discuss remembrance and education. This is a social consequence because most of Rwanda have contributed in some way. It is a long term consequence because it still goes on today and the world can’t see it stopping anytime soon. The focus of remembrance is to teach the history of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide and emphasise moral values. There are many memorial sites in Rwanda, which pays tribute to the hundreds of thousands killed. Marimba Technical School, where many victims were killed and still remain as a museum. Other ways of remembrance is art and photos taken in tribute such as people standing in a line with other people laying in front making human words saying END GENOCIDE NOW! There is also a national day of reflection in Rwanda on April 7th. To sum up this consequence a quote from Kofi Annan general of the UN in 1994, â€Å"If the pictures of tens of thousands of human bodies being gnawed on by dogs do not wake us out of our apathy, I do not know what will†. The fourth and final consequence I am going to write about population displacement. This is a political and social consequence because the government feel through and society took over. This is a short term consequence because lots of people started to come back into Rwanda once the genocide was over. The 1994 Rwandan Genocide resulted in massive exodus of refugees to bordering countries. Another one million people remained internally displaced in Rwanda itself. Millions of Hutu and displaced Tutsi had crowded refugee camps beyond the Rwandan boarders. International relief efforts were mobilised to care for refugees, but available supplies were inadequate and outbreaks of disease were widespread. More than 20,000 refugees died in cholera epidemic. During the genocide Tutsi and Hutu moderates fled. From April 1994 Tutsi and Hutu moderate refugees poured out of Rwanda and into neighbouring countries. After the genocide Tutsi refugees returned. In July 1994 when the seize fire was called Tutsis began to return to Rwanda, including refugees who had fled in the 1960’s. Hutu perpetrators fled the country. Genocide only ended when the RPF eventually defeated the Rwandan government’s armies and took control of the country. Retaliatory violence by Tutsis caused thousands of lives. By mid July, and estimated 2 million Hutu perpetrators and bystanders had fled. 850,000 refugees entered the area in just 4 days. During the influx, 15,000 refugees an hour crossed the Rwanda-Zaire boarder. The camps became like countries in exile for the Hutu extremists who used members of the Hutu army to maintain control of the refugee camps. Between July and November 1996 the refugee camps were shut down. One million exiles returned to Rwanda including tens of thousands of perpetrators who had been living side by side with Tutsi in the refugee camps. In November 1996 more than 600,000 Hutu refugees returned to Rwanda from Zaire. In December 500,000 returned from Tanzania. In summery†¦ Ironically, both Hutu perpetrators and Tutsi and Hutu moderate victims ended up in the same camps. In conclusion the causes I have just written about were the ethnic tension as a result of Belgium Colonisation, Propaganda and hate rhetoric, the role of the international community, political problems. The consequences I have just written about were the casualties, the economic effects, remembrance and education, and population displacement. All of these were major events that happened before, during and after the 1994 Rwanda Genocide there were also a number of other causes and consequences, causes are economic problems, and independence problems. The consequences were political effects, apologies from the international community, and justice, responsibility reconciliation. A quote to sum up the 1994 Rwandan Genocide is, â€Å"The Rwandan Genocide is perhaps the most horrible and systematic human massacre we have had to witness since the extermination of the Jews by the Nazis†.

“The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down” by Anne Fadiman Essay Example for Free

â€Å"The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down† by Anne Fadiman Essay Anne Fadiman’s â€Å"The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down† explores the depth and complexity of cultural understanding, particularly between the American culture and the Hmong culture of Laos. To do this, Fadiman made of an account of a case of a Hmong child who suffered from epileptic seizure. Here, she elaborately narrated how Lia Lee, a seven-year old Hmong girl, got caught between the conflict in beliefs among her American doctors and Hmong parents. While Lia’s parents totally believe in the Hmong traditional way of healing, her American doctors on the other hand strongly believe on the power of modern medicine. From this theme the book of Fadiman mainly revolved.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the subtopics that were discussed in the book also dealt with intercultural communication. Among all the characters in the novel, the Lee parents, Foua and Nao Kao, were the ones who learned most about this. From the story, we found out that the Lee parents belonged to the some of the Hmong people who migrated from Laos to America due to Laos War. With this a background, we could claim that the Lees did the adjusting with their new environment. However, in Fadiman’s point-of-view, the other way around happened.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To prove this, Fadiman wrote that the Hmong people are one of the proudest cultural groups. She mentioned that â€Å"†¦the Hmong do no like to take orders; that they do not like to lose; that they would rather flee, fight, or die than surrender; that they are not intimidated by being outnumbered; that they are rarely persuaded that the customs of other culture, even those more powerful than their own, are superior, and that they are capable of getting very angry (Fadiman, 1997; p. 17).   She also wrote that Hmong people migrated to America not to hope for assimilation but to resist it, just like what they did when they left China (Fadiman, 1997; p.183). However, although the Lee parents seemed to be so proud and fixed with their beliefs regarding healing of their child, at the end, they finally agreed with Lia’s American doctors with her medication. However, the American doctors claimed that if Lia’s parents followed them earlier, then Lia would not end up having her brain dead.   From this, we could conclude that certainly, Foua and Nao Kao had learned that intercultural communication is important in dealing with problems. Moreover, the couple learned how to adjust and balance their own beliefs and practices with those of other culture.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The conflict in cultural beliefs in healing was also the most significant topic explored in the text. The clashing of Lia’s parents and her American doctors was one of the reasons for Lia’s condition. The Hmong couple strongly believed that the condition of their child was qaug dab peg translated as â€Å"the spirit catches you and you fall down†. In the Hmong culture, this means that the soul has left the body, thus Lia would become spiritually-gifted. On the other hand, the doctors strongly believed that Lia’s condition is dangerous and must be taken with serious and modern medication. Because of this conflict in beliefs, Lia’s condition worsened.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   However, this could have been prevented if at the start, both parties valued the importance of intercultural communication. For example, instead of not complying in the giving of Phenobarbital to Lia (Fadiman, 1997; 220), the couples should have listened first to the views of Lia’s doctors regarding her condition. If this has happened, the separation of Lia from her parents due to an order court, which caused too much stress on Lia’s part, could have been prevented. The situation, as Fadiman described in her interview with Lia’s nurses, made Lia â€Å" crying four days straight. Smearing feces, intense crying again. Stripped herself . . . went on a wave of destruction. Had to sedate her† (Fadiman, 1997; p.87). On the other hand, if the American doctors had acknowledged the importance of Hmong beliefs and practices for the Lee couples, then they could have helped each other in dealing with Lia’s condition. In addition, the American doctors should have shown an open mind for the couple’s opposite views regarding health and healing. For example, they should not have pointed the blame to the Lee couples when Lia’s condition worsened. In fact, according to Fadiman, Lia’s condition did not worsen because of the non-compliance of her parents. In Fadiman’s interview with the pediatric neurologist who observed last Lia and who came from a different hospital, he said that Lia’s worse condition was due to her long stay in the hospital. Fadiman wrote that the doctor ordered her to â€Å"†¦ Go back to Merced, and tell all those people at the MCMC that the family didnt do this to the kid. We did.   (Fadiman, 1997; p.255). Through this, at least intercultural communication and understanding had been observed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In relation to this, the people from MCMC, the hospital where Lia was confined, were one the significant people in not only in Lia’s life, but in the Hmong community in California as well. Their actions in dealing with Lia’s case could be said as a reflection of their understanding of Hmong culture. If I were the hospital administrator of MCMC, I would suggest that the hospital hold a special division for Hmong patients. All people that would be assigned in here should have a vast knowledge on Hmong culture. In that way, the hospital could better serve the Hmong people. In addition, I would suggest that all hospital employees be sensitive and open with Hmong beliefs and practices. Finally and the most important one, I would suggest that all hospital employees practice communicating culturally with the Hmong people. This would prevent both parties from misinterpreting and misunderstanding each other.   In dealing with the conflict with their medical beliefs, it is important that the hospital employees could explain well to the Hmong people their views regarding modern practice of medicine. In that way, Hmong people and American doctors could meet halfway to help one another.

The Cuban Missile Crisis

The Cuban Missile Crisis The Cuban missile crisis began on 14 October, 1962 when an American U-2 spy plane discovered that Premier Nikita Khrushchev of the Soviet Union was attempting to install intermediate-range nuclear-outfitted ballistic missiles in Cuba.  [1]  These warheads would have the capacity to destroy a large portion of the United States and therefore posed an enormous threat. When confronted by this immense threat that could presage nuclear war, the American government was forced to take action in order to diffuse the situation. The complexities of this type of decision-making are intricate, yet explainable and fundamentally predictable thanks to modern methods of analysis. As John F. Kennedy phrased it, The essence of ultimate decision remains impenetrable to the observer-often, indeed, to the decider himselfà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. There will always be the dark and tangled stretches in the decision-making process-mysterious even to those who may be most intimately involved.  [2]  I would like to unravel the dark and tangled stretches in this process by using game theory to retrodict, or make past predictions of, the different leaders choices throughout the thirteen day span of the Cuban missile crisis. Game Theory Basics When examined through the perspective of the Rational Actor Model, this situation introduces an obvious dilemma. Within this model, governments are treated as the primary actors. The government examines a set of goals, evaluates them according to their utility, then selects the one that has the highest payoff. In this instance, the United States was involved in a nuclear standoff with the Soviet Union. In the time of this imminent threat of mutually assured destruction, the correct action needed to be taken as millions of lives were at stake. Game theory is a branch of analytical mathematics utilized in social science to attempt to mathematically calculate decision-making in strategic situations in which an individuals success in making choices is dependent upon the choices of others.  [3]  It applies to situations (games) where there are two or more parties (called players) each attempting to choose between two or more ways of acting (called strategies). The possible outcomes of a particular game depend on the choices made by all players, and they can be ranked in order of preference by each player. In regards to two-person, two-strategy games, as the Cuban missile crisis resembled, there are combinations of strategies for the players that are more or less stable. This occurs when neither player by departing from its strategy can do any better in the outcome. When both players use these strategies simultaneously, the outcome is known as a Nash equilibrium, named after esteemed game theorist John Nash. A Nash equilibrium does not necessarily produce optimum outcomes for one or both players though. Instead, it can be viewed more as an optimal middle ground in which both players are spared from suffering the worst possible outcome. A Nash equilibrium is essentially what was reached during the Cuban missile crisis. Chicken Game Model In game theory, Chicken is the typical game used to model conflicts in which the players are on a deadly collision course. The game borrowed its namesake from hot rod movies made famous in the 1950s.  [4]  In these movies, the players are two hot rodders and the game is one in which they drive their cars directly at one another, risking a head on collision. If one of them turns away at the last minute, he or she is said to have chickened out and is deemed the loser. However, if neither player decides to turn away, both are vulnerable to losing much more, since it is obvious that they will either be killed or seriously injured in the event of a wreck. In the last possibility of outcomes, if both players decide to turn away, neither gains nor loses anything. The payoffs of Chicken can be explained by this basic diagram: Basic Chicken John go straight turn away Mark go straight -10, -10 5, -5 turn away -5, 5 0, 0 *Matrix format  [5]   This matrix shows that this theoretical game has two Nash equilibria, (5,-5) and (-5,5), one where one hot rodder turns away and the other goes straight and vice versa. However, since there are two Nash equilibria and no predefined Schelling point, which is a solution that a player will tend to use in the absence of communication or substantial knowledge because it seems instinctive, or relevant to them,  [6]  there is no indication of which outcome is more likely. This poses a problem for the hot rodders as well as an equivocation for the game theorist since there is the ever present danger of both players falling into the mutual disaster of a collision. When aligned to the Cuban missile crisis, this mutual disaster is the mutually assured destruction of nuclear war. Application of the Chicken Game Model Thus unfolds a classic game of chicken with the United States behind one wheel, facing off with the Soviet Union behind the other. Before evaluating the end results of the game, however, it is important to first examine the formulation of strategies. Abiding by the theory of moves, it is of the highest importance to anticipate, whilst concurrently trying to condition, the outcomes and consequences of any major decision or choice of action. Therefore, when deciding on a strategy to employ, each alternative must be weighed and projected completely through its causal fallout. This was the most critical aspect of the game for the Kennedy administration. As Defense Secretary McNamara explained about the situation, Its not a military problem that were facing. Its a political problem. Its a problem of holding the Alliance together. Its a problem of properly conditioning Khrushchev for our future moves.  [7]  It cannot be said whether he was directly referencing game theory with this sta tement, but the implications are fitting in the application of such concepts. Many members of the administration and military leaders felt as though their hands were up in the air, or tied behind their backs, because no one was confident enough to make a final decision under these tense and potentially tragic conditions. The wrong decision could have led to the end of the United States of America. Even so, the urgency of the situation made it necessary for the right decision to be made immediately. Ultimately, every minute wasted was a minute longer the Soviets had to make the ballistic missiles operable in Cuba, therefore time and decision were of the essence. Group Decision-making and EXCOMM Group decision is a trustworthy way to make choices because of the benefits the approach produces, as long as social phenomena such as groupthink are avoided. The cooperative planning done by the Executive Committee including Secretary of State Dean Rusk, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, John McNamara, Director of Central Intelligence John McCone and the other cabinet members ensured multilateral examination of the situation, fuller consideration of the entire spectrum of relevant points of interest, more ingenuity in the formulation of options and a greater overall sense of awareness and knowledge about the issue. This interplay of a multitude of expertise made an optimum decision likely. Furthermore, group interaction was the most logical approach when considering the negative effects preempted by a solo decision of President Kennedy. Miles Law states that where you stand depends on where you sit.  [8]  Specifically in this case, ones stance on an issue is significantly affected by their role in the government and where they fall into the operational chain of command. A cooperative decision minimized the role interference that could bias the plan of action. Possible Courses of Action After days of deliberation, Kennedy and his advisers came up with six possible options. These options were as follows: 1) Do nothing. Although an option, this course of inaction was not even considered as President Kennedy was sure the domestic fallout would be that of intolerance. 2) Impose diplomatic pressures and negotiate with Khrushchev at a summit. This option was also not popular because it implied that American concessions would be made and President Kennedy was unwilling to show this flexibility out of fear that it would be conveyed as vulnerability. 3) Make a secret appeal to Castro and split Cuba from its ties with the Soviet Union. 4) Send troops to Cuba for a ground invasion. 5) Deploy an air strike on the island in order to destroy the missiles and scare the Soviets of Cuba falling to US control. 6) Implement a blockade of Cuba to keep weapons away. However, whichever method picked had to be carried out without sparking a Soviet reprisal on Berlin.  [9]   After further deliberations, these options were narrowed down to two possible courses of action. Either a naval blockade to prevent the shipment of more missiles or a surgical air strike to destroy existing missiles would be implemented. In response, the Soviets could ultimately only choose between two strategies; either withdraw or maintain the missiles in Cuba. Specifically though, the blockade forced Khrushchev to choose among three immediate alternatives: 1) avoid a showdown by keeping Soviet vessels out of the area 2) submit to the blockade by permitting ships to be stopped and searched and 3) provoke the United States to a first use of force by defying the blockade. The game outcomes look more like this diagram: Applied Chicken Soviet Union withdraw (W) maintain (M) United States blockade (B) 3, 3 2, 4 air strike (A) 4, 2 1, 1 Together these strategies comprise the array of options the players have to choose from. When paired, they result in four possible outcomes, which the players are assumed to rank from one to four, with one being the worst, or least beneficial, and four being the best or most profitable outcome. The first number in the ordered pairs for each outcome is the payoff to the row player (United States), and the second number the payoff to the column player (Soviet Union). It is important to remember though that these rankings of the payoffs are only ordinal, meaning they only rank from best to worst, not incorporating the extent or degree to which a player prefers one outcome to another. Analysis of Applied Chicken Game Model Needless to say, this matrix of strategic choices and payoffs only provides an elementary depiction of the crisis as it unfolded over the thirteen day period. It must be acknowledged that both players considered more than merely the options listed, as well as modifications and augmentations of each. For example, the Soviets demanded the withdrawal of American missiles from Turkey as a quid pro quo  [10]  for withdrawal of their own missiles from Cuba.  [11]  The United States blatantly ignored this request. Even so, it is common belief that the superpowers were indeed on a collision course during the Cuban missile crisis and therefore the Chicken model is appropriate. Alternatively, neither side was forthcoming in undertaking any irreversible action, such as one of the drivers might do in Chicken by allowing the other driver to see him boldly breaking off the steering wheel of his car and coincidentally eliminating the option of maneuvering to avoid collision. It is here that the Chicken game leaves voids in application to the crisis. It can be said that the United States ultimately won by forcing the U.S.S.R. to withdraw their missiles. Per contra, Premier Khrushchev was granted a promise that the U.S. would not invade Cuba. This dual-reward represents a result that is basically a compromise- which does not coincide with game theorys prediction for a game of Chicken. The strategies the compromise consists of do not form any Nash equilibriums. To analyze this, assume that gameplay is at the compromise (3,3) position where the U.S. blockades Cuba and the Soviet Union withdraws its missiles. This outcome is not stable because both players have incentives to deviate to more aggressive strategies. If the U.S.S.R. was to defect by maintaining their missiles, gameplay would shift to (2,4) granting the Soviets a payoff of four. The same, but reverse, would happen if the U.S. decided to change their strategy to an air strike. This symmetry in the table of payoffs presents a recurring problem in interpreting results of a Chicken game- there is more than one equilibrium outcome.  [12]  Furthermore, if the players arrive at the mutually worst (1,1) outcome of nuclear war, both would have undoubtful incentive to move away from it, which makes the strategies associated with (1,1) just like those with (3,3); unstable. Shortfalls of the Chicken Game Model As shown, using Chicken to try to wholly model the Cuban missile crisis is flawed not only because of the instability of the outcomes but also because of the parameters. As it happened, the two superpowers did not select their strategies independently of each other, nor simultaneously as assumed in the Chicken game. The Soviet Union chose their actions in response to the already implemented U.S. quarantine. Additionally, the fact that the United States held the air strike option in reserve in case circumstances necessitated escalation of action shows that the first decision was not considered final, and the U.S. felt they still had strategic options open even after imposing the blockade. Consequently, the Cuban missile crisis can be more appropriately modeled as a game of sequential bargaining where neither player makes a terminal decision, but rather considers different alternatives, and reserves the absolutes in case the opponent should fail to act acceptably. Before the crisis, the Soviets felt they needed to advance their global strategic position, even though they feared that the U.S. might invade Cuba. Khrushchev decided that positioning the missiles was worth that risk. He and his staff rationalized that the Americans if confronted with this fait accompli, or an action that is completed before those affected by it are in a position to query or reverse it, would be deterred from invading Cuba and would not any other severe reprisals.  [13]  Even if they instigated a crisis, they did not see the probability of war being high and therefore they risked antagonizing the United States. Recourse Game Model and Application Accordingly, there is convincing evidence to believe that American policy makers did not see the conflict Chicken-like based on how they considered and ranked possible outcomes. The over-simplicity of using this model was alluded to by historian Philip Zelikow in his analysis of the audio tapes of dialogue within the EXCOMM meetings.  [14]  In order to more thoroughly explain the crisis, I will further apply game theory to the situation by creating a new, modified version of the Chicken game that I will call Recourse. This representation maintains the same strategies given in Chicken, but redistributes the rankings and interpretations of outcomes. These new classifications align more thouroughly with history than those of Chicken: Applied Recourse Soviet Union withdraw (W) maintain (M) United States blockade (B) 3, 3 1, 4 air strike (A) 2, 2 4, 1 In the game of Recourse, the possible outcomes are as follows: B/W: The choice of blockade by the United States and withdrawal by the Soviet Union remains the compromise for both players = (3,3). B/M: In the face of a U.S. blockade, Soviet maintenance of their missiles leads to a Soviet victory (its best outcome) and U.S. capitulation (its worst outcome) = (1,4). A/M: An air strike that destroys the missiles that the Soviets were maintaining is an honorable U.S. action (its best outcome) and thwarts the Soviets (their worst outcome) = (4,1). A/W: An air strike that destroys the missiles that the Soviets were withdrawing is a dishonorable U.S. action (its next-worst outcome) and thwarts the Soviets (their next-worst outcome) = (2,2). Although air strike trumps the Soviet Union at both outcomes (4,1) and (2,2), I view the (2,2) outcome as less harmful to the Soviets. This is because international opinion at the time would condemn an American air strike as an obtrusively offensive move and furthermore a dishonorable action of the United States, especially if there was clear evidence that the U.S.S.R. was in the process of withdrawing their missiles already. If no such evidence existed, however, air strike, possibly supplemented with a ground invasion, would be acceptable action to counter the Soviet missiles. Accuracy of the Recourse Game Model The statements of U.S. policy makers support Recourse. In responding to a letter from Khrushchev, President Kennedy said, If you would agree to remove these weapons systems from Cuba . . . we, on our part, would agree . . . (a) to remove promptly the quarantine measures now in effect and (b) to give assurances against an invasion of Cuba,  [15]  which is consistent with Recourse since (3,3) is preferred to (2,2) by the United States, whereas (4,2) is not preferred to (3,3) in Chicken. If the Soviets maintained their missiles, the United States preferred an air strike to the blockade. As Robert Kennedy, the Attorney General under his brother during the crisis, said, If they did not remove those bases, we would remove them,  [16]  which is consistent with Recourse, since the United States prefers (4,1) to (1,4) but not (1,1) to (2,4) in Chicken. Similarly, it is well known that several of President Kennedys advisers were reluctant to initiate an attack against Cuba without first exhausting less belligerent courses of action that could bring about the removal of the missiles with less risk and greater sensitivity to American ideals and values.  [17]  This is in accordance with the United States tendency to always act ethically and the governments perpetual sensitivity to the worlds perception of America. Pointedly, Robert Kennedy claimed that an immediate attack would be looked upon as a Pearl Harbor in reverse, and it would blacken the name of the United States in the pages of history,  [18]  which is again consistent with Recourse since the United States ranks A/W next worst (2), a dishonorable U.S. action, rather than best (4), a U.S. victory, in Chicken. Actual Gameplay As it happened, at 7:00pm on 22 October, 1962, President Kennedy publicly announced that the United States had discovered Soviet missiles in Cuba and decreed a strict quarantine on all offensive military equipment under shipment to Cuba. Additionally, he demanded that Chairman Khrushchev halt and eliminate this clandestine, reckless and provocative threat to world peace.  [19]  After the ships were deployed, all that was left to do was to await a response. Initially, on 24 October, as anticipated, Khrushchev responded defiantly, saying that he would instruct his ships to ignore the American blockade. However, the next morning, he reconciled and told Kennedy that he no longer wanted to exchange caustic remarks and was ready to resolve the crisis. Khrushchev offered his terms, Give us a pledge not to invade Cuba, and we will remove the missiles, proving that he was genuine when he professed that he was prepared to dismantle the missiles to make Cuba into a zone of peace.  [20]  The Soviet Union feared an American invasion of Cuba and saw the blockade as a heartening gesture that allowed concessions to be made without drastic loss. Essentially, the outcome of this game and the Cuban missile crisis in general can be assessed at 4:2 in favor of the United States. Although neither side literally gained any reward from the outcome, both avoided any significant loss. Since the United States made the initial offer and compelled the Soviet Union to make the next move, therefore inconveniencing Khrushchev into yielding to the conditions set forth by President Kennedy, America emerges as the winner of the game although the payoff was not maximized. Although Recourse creates a fitting model, this explanation of events is neither all-inclusive nor infallible. As with any theory, there are conditions that are assumed to, and must be, static that the reasoning is based upon. And in a dynamic world, these criteria are not always satisfied. There are a multitude of external factors that influence decision making, many of which will be discussed in the following sections as they pertain to the Cuban Missile Crisis and nuclear war in general. Specified Game Theory: Deterrence Theory Game theory can be applied in a more general sense to other primary aspects of nuclear war, the most prominent of them being mutually assured destruction and deterrence. The application of game theory to these concepts has resulted in the derivation of a number of consequential theories which ultimately resolve in the cost-benefit analysis that game theory focuses on. According to the official U.S. Department of Defense definition, Deterrence is a state of mind brought about by the existence of a credible threat of unacceptable counter action.  [21]  This definition captures the main premise for the United States historic reliance on deterrence; however, it does not encompass the entirety of deterrence theory. In general, deterrence is a complex term that universally means persuading an opponent that the costs and consequences of a specific action will outweigh and trump any potential benefits. The concept of persuading an adversary references the significant psychological aspect of deterrence, which is often an interplay of uncertain concessions and threats that may or may not be bluffs or true promises. More specifically, using the word potential when describing the anticipated benefits shows the future-oriented aspect of any deterrent threat, meaning there is the promise of a certain reaction only in response to the undesired decision of another actor (player).  [22]   Capability vs. Credibility According to accredited deterrence theorist Derek Smith, Underlying any deterrent threat are the closely intertwined concepts of capability and credibility.  [23]  The concept of capability is reasonably straightforward and readily quantifiable variable, based on each players arsenal and military forces that are available for use in any engagement; whereas, credibility is a much more complex and qualitative variable, which is defined mostly from the anticipated probability that all available forces will actually be utilized, making it trivial. To clarify, for example, a state may have a promising amassment of armed forces, but if the state is governed by domestic doctrine that forbids their use except for in strict cases of homeland defense, then any strategy or threat of external use of force as deterrence will lack credibility. The Psychology of Commitment Techniques In order to strengthen the perception of an actors resolve, a popular strategy is to use commitment techniques,  [24]  or techniques that increase the costs and losses involved in refusing or failing to act. An everyday example of this type of strategy is if someone tells all of their friends that they are quitting smoking for good. From thence on, their friends will act as a constant source of pressure for them to uphold the obligation (commitment) because they voiced it publicly, and will now be held accountable to it. For a better example, Smith illustrates the military image of burning bridges while in combat to make a retreat impossible, which is an unambiguous method for cementing ones resolve.  [25]   Similarly, in the words of Thomas Schelling, What we have to do is get ourselves into a position where we cannot fail to react as we said we would-where we just cannot help it-or where we would be obliged by some overwhelming cost of not reacting in the manner we had declared.  [26]  In order to illustrate this concept, Shelling makes reference to how, during the Cold War, the United States posted troops in Western Europe to act as a tripwire against Soviet aggression. This was an act that served to fortify resolve, and essentially the United States made the defense of Europe, and their overarching containment strategy a more absolute prospect by effectively eliminating the choice of retreat and abandonment.  [27]   The Paradox of Control and MAD The idea that a player denying himself options can be a productive or beneficial move appears counterintuitive at first. Schelling describes this phenomenon as a paradox that the power to constrain an adversary may depend on the power to bind oneself.  [28]  Reexamining a fundamental game of Chicken is a fitting way of clarifying what is meant by that. If the two drivers are about to start speeding towards each other, it would make an extreme statement if one of the drivers decided to break off his steering wheel and show the other driver. After this, the other driver would have no choice but to give up and turn his car or suffer the tragic collision. Making a bold statement like this can be a very effective way of determining resolve in situations where capability is lacking, however, the important thing to note is that it is always possible that both drivers could choose to make the same decision, which would create an even worse outcome than if the power position had been conceded at the end. The critical factor, then, is actually who is able to make the first move, thereby leaving the remaining with only one last clear chance to avoid catastrophe.  [29]  This catastrophe, in parallel to the Cuban Missile Crisis, is mutually assured destruction. Furthermore, in addition to committing oneself to a specific course of action, there is also the trivial strategy of issuing a threat that leaves something to chance, so that the end decision of whether or not to act is not completely controlled by the player that issued the threat.  [30]  This particular bargaining technique plays on the factor of risk-acceptance, assuming that the opposing side will choose to give in first. Consider the clichà © scenario of one person rocking a boat in order to extract concessions from the scared occupants. Schelling uses the term brinksmanship to describe this strategy, the choice of deliberately letting the situation get somewhat out of hand, just because its being out of hand may be intolerable to the other party and force his accommodation.  [31]  Going back to the Chicken scenario, this would be verisimilar to one of the drivers publicly consuming a large amount of alcohol or other psychoactive substance before stepping into the car, thus creating uncertainty in the other players mind that he would be able to avoid a collision even if he actually wanted to do so. This would likely influence the sober driver to concede unless he really wanted to collide, and thus the daredevil player who intoxicated himself indirectly forced the sober player to capitulate; effecting the outcome he desired by acting outside the bounds of rationality. Deterrence: Rationality of Irrationality In much of the widely accepted literature published on deterrence, this phenomenon is called the rationality of irrationality, since one player can draw coercive power from the prospect of being potentially undeterrable.  [32]  As stated, whilst this strategy is dominantly compelling, it still welcomes tragedy, i.e. mutually assured destruction, by undertaking irrationality even though the opponent could possibly do the same or is expecting rational behavior from the other actor involved in the crisis. Regardless, despite the strategies and techniques that play out systematically and predictably in game theory and in the aforementioned hypothetical examples, it is always important to remember that the concept of deterrence, and the use of deterrence as a strategy, are built on a foundati

Shakespeares Macbeth and Hamlet as Tragic Heroes Essay -- Macbeth ess

Macbeth and Hamlet as Tragic Heroes      Ã‚   William Shakespeare has written many literary works - from his sonnets to his plays, each has it's own individual characteristics.   One popular characteristic that comes from his plays is the tragic hero.   The audience can always relate to the tragic hero and the many trials he faces.   Macbeth and Hamlet are just two of Shakespeare's plays that involve the tragic hero.   Through their nobility, tragic flaws, and dignity Macbeth and Hamlet prove to be tragic heroes.    Macbeth's nobility begins with the title, "thane of Glamis" (1.3.74).   After the original "thane of Cawdor" (1.3.110) dies, Macbeth gains this title as well.   Once the witches reveal the prophecy that Macbeth would be king, Macbeth murders the king and takes the throne for himself.   This reaches the height of Macbeth's nobility.   In the beginning of the play, Macbeth is thought of as a "worthy thane"(2.3.43.), however, this shifts to nothing more than a "hell hound"(5.8.4.) in the end.   Much like Macbeth, Hamlet is very powerful and has a high status in the country.   Hamlet is the Prince of Denmark and was named "most immediate to [the] throne" (1.2.109) by Claudius.   "Lord Hamlet"(1.5.112.) is well respected by the people of Denmark.   Claudius takes this into account and does not immediately kill Hamlet when he finds out he knows the truth about his father's death.   Similar to Macbeth, Hamlet starts out in a more noble position than he ends up.   Once Ha mlet begins to act crazy, others start to believe his "noble mind is here o'erthrown!" (3.1.153.).   The idea that both Hamlet and Macbeth begin with a high position and fall to their defeat leads to the development of the theme power corrupts, an important theme in... ...s honor by exchanging forgiveness with him.   In turn, the dignity of Shakespeare's tragic heroes is reestablished in the end, however, this does not change their fate.    The characteristics of Macbeth and Hamlet lead them to become tragic heroes.   The specific detail of these characteristics make Shakespeare's tragic heroes well defined in each of his plays.   By the time of their deaths, both Macbeth and Hamlet have realized their fate and accepted the consequences like a true tragic hero.    Works Cited and Consulted: Elliot, G.R. "Introduction: On `Macbeth' as Apex of Shakspearean Tragedy" in Shakespearean Criticism, Volume 3. Edited by Laurie Harris Gale: 1984 Shakespeare, William. Macbeth. Edited by Norman Sanders. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994 Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Ed. Sylvan Barnet. New York: Signet Classic, 1998.

Renissance and Reformation Essay -- Political, Economic, Social Develop

The arrival of the Renaissance in Europe brought many developments that led to an entirely new political, economic, and social structure. During the 1400s and 1500s, there was a major change that took place in all aspects of life in Italy. The Renaissance period of the 1500s was a time of artistic wonders of inspiration that emphasized individual achievements, which gave individuals their own ideals to follow. Inspiration from the ancient Greek and Roman people led to humanist beliefs and encouraged men to have achievements in many areas. Recovery from disasters of the fourteenth century such as the plague, political instability, and a decline in Church power led to interests in ancient culture. As interests grew, Renaissance arose in Italy for three reasons. First, Italy had several important cities, whereas most of northern Europe was still rural. Second, these cities included a class of wealthy and powerful merchants and bankers. Third, the ruined buildings and other reminders of classical Rome inspired Italian artists and scholars. The society also divided into three estates, or social classes. First estate was clergy, second was nobility, and third was commoners, which were peasants and townspeople. Also, marriages were arranged to strengthen political ties, and the humanism, new interest in the classical part, led to an important value in Renaissance. The ideals of the people changed . Italian writers, Machiavelli and Castiglione, began to create plays and other pieces of writing that did not hold back their true beliefs. Art, literature, math, and science greatly progressed due to humanism, and artworks became more realistic. Techniques such as fresco, developed by Masaccio, enabled the illusion of depth. Many other te... ... chief pillars were the Jesuits founded by the Ignatius of Loyola, reform of the papacy that happened in part to Protestantism, and Council of Trent that was a Reform Commission appointed in 1537 to determine Church’s ills and affirm traditional Catholic teachings. Then, Protestantism spread more the further it got from Rome. The arrival of the Renaissance in Europe brought many developments that led to an entirely new political, economic, and social structure, but it also brought a corruption in the Church. Inspiration from the ancient Greek and Roman people led to humanist beliefs and encouraged men to have achievements in many areas. The Church was no longer the center of life for many people, but it was still an important aspect. When it was brought to serious questions and political concerns, the Reformation caused Catholic responses in many areas of Europe.

Indian Essay -- essays research papers

In American Asian Indians form one of the smallest minorities, yet in their homeland has the largest population in the world. America was influenced by their beliefs before the first immigrant. Many of the Indians came to American as early as the turn of the century, in which they where denied citizenship until a congressional act granted it in 1946(Lee 106). Most of them are now artists, writers, musicians, and scientists. Asian Indians have supplied numerous contributions to the culture and immaculate being of US; majorities of these contributions regulate to the science field. Asian Indians immigrated in the period of 1830- 1890. In this time India was in admirable shape. However the British took over India, they emptied the country of all her wealth and forced the Indians to leave. America at this time was a strong magnet to immigrants, with offers of jobs and religious freedom (Takaki 42). Consequently, America was referred to many countries as the " Land of Opportunity."(43) This reference glazed into the eyes of Asian Indians; therefore, in research came to America for opportunities. Many Asian Indians faced hardships upon their arrival. In recent years, Asians have been among the victims of violence fueled by prejudice (42). While many of these people have become self-employed entrepreneurs by choice, others have found themselves pushed into self- employment by discrimination. Similarly, an Asian Indian engineer who had worked for a company for some twenty years told his friend, "They [management] never give you [Asian Indians] an executive position in the company. You can only go up so high and no more (Lee 69)." Frustrated by limited opportunities to advance in their careers, many Asian Indian professionals have turned to opening their own businesses(70). For Indians to see the racist acts towards them hurts and not to be able to show there true talent. Assimilation has been a powerful source in American life, particularly in policies and attitudes towards immigrants in the twentieth century (Brands 23). Furthermore, members of American minorities had learned that assimilation is not an all-or nothing processes (Bagai 12). To complete the process, the enterprising minority individual must jump through severa... ... in hospitals and working in universities has changed the future of USA. Some have changed there beliefs from there eastern to the western and in this process they changed USA in teaching US about the culture and making a multicultural society to live in. Living both Indian and American life's can be frustrating at times when can't decide to go by which rules and what to think and feel. For some parents, pray that their children don't lose their culture in them. Growing up in two cultures is a great challenge, yes; yet it is a difficult experience, but not one without its benefits. WORKS CONSULTED Bagai,B. Leona. The East Indian and the Pakistanis in America. Minneapolis Lerner Publications Company, 1967. Brands, H.W. India and the United States. Boston: Twayne Publisher, 1990. Lee, Faung Jean Joann. Asian American Experiences in the United States. North Carolina: MC Farland Company, INC. 1991. Takaki, Ronald. Spacious Dreams. New York: Chelsea House Publisher, 1989. Takaki, Ronald. Strangers at the Gate Again. New York: Chelsea House Publisher, 1989. Indian Essay -- essays research papers In American Asian Indians form one of the smallest minorities, yet in their homeland has the largest population in the world. America was influenced by their beliefs before the first immigrant. Many of the Indians came to American as early as the turn of the century, in which they where denied citizenship until a congressional act granted it in 1946(Lee 106). Most of them are now artists, writers, musicians, and scientists. Asian Indians have supplied numerous contributions to the culture and immaculate being of US; majorities of these contributions regulate to the science field. Asian Indians immigrated in the period of 1830- 1890. In this time India was in admirable shape. However the British took over India, they emptied the country of all her wealth and forced the Indians to leave. America at this time was a strong magnet to immigrants, with offers of jobs and religious freedom (Takaki 42). Consequently, America was referred to many countries as the " Land of Opportunity."(43) This reference glazed into the eyes of Asian Indians; therefore, in research came to America for opportunities. Many Asian Indians faced hardships upon their arrival. In recent years, Asians have been among the victims of violence fueled by prejudice (42). While many of these people have become self-employed entrepreneurs by choice, others have found themselves pushed into self- employment by discrimination. Similarly, an Asian Indian engineer who had worked for a company for some twenty years told his friend, "They [management] never give you [Asian Indians] an executive position in the company. You can only go up so high and no more (Lee 69)." Frustrated by limited opportunities to advance in their careers, many Asian Indian professionals have turned to opening their own businesses(70). For Indians to see the racist acts towards them hurts and not to be able to show there true talent. Assimilation has been a powerful source in American life, particularly in policies and attitudes towards immigrants in the twentieth century (Brands 23). Furthermore, members of American minorities had learned that assimilation is not an all-or nothing processes (Bagai 12). To complete the process, the enterprising minority individual must jump through severa... ... in hospitals and working in universities has changed the future of USA. Some have changed there beliefs from there eastern to the western and in this process they changed USA in teaching US about the culture and making a multicultural society to live in. Living both Indian and American life's can be frustrating at times when can't decide to go by which rules and what to think and feel. For some parents, pray that their children don't lose their culture in them. Growing up in two cultures is a great challenge, yes; yet it is a difficult experience, but not one without its benefits. WORKS CONSULTED Bagai,B. Leona. The East Indian and the Pakistanis in America. Minneapolis Lerner Publications Company, 1967. Brands, H.W. India and the United States. Boston: Twayne Publisher, 1990. Lee, Faung Jean Joann. Asian American Experiences in the United States. North Carolina: MC Farland Company, INC. 1991. Takaki, Ronald. Spacious Dreams. New York: Chelsea House Publisher, 1989. Takaki, Ronald. Strangers at the Gate Again. New York: Chelsea House Publisher, 1989.